Roosevelt And Roosevelt s President Essay - 1495 Words

Throughout the beginning of the 1900’s, Roosevelt became immensely favored and adored by the majority of United States citizens. After Theodore Roosevelt served his terms of presidency from 1901-1909, he declared that he would not accept a renomination for another term. With being in control of the Republican Party and also becoming quite favored, Roosevelt was able to name who his successor would be. With having being so popular and trustworthy, Roosevelt commanded the Republican Party to stay loyal to his ways by nominating and supporting Roosevelt’s secretary of war, William Howard Taft. When Roosevelt left office, he stated, â€Å"I have the profound satisfaction of knowing that he [Taft] will do all in his power to further every one of the great causes for which I have fought and that he will persevere in every one of the great governmental policies in which I most firmly believe† (6). However, when election time came around, many Americans were not impressed by the actions that Taft had taken and the way he carried himself. Many Americans were against Taft and believed that he was not competent enough to take on the job. When Taft ran for his second term in 1912, his opposers, betrayal of the Republican Party and his seemingly lack of political knowledge and training cost him the election. Mid-way through his first term, Taft had changed his motives and wanted to remove so called â€Å"disloyal† members from the Republican party. Around this time, Taft was also in aShow MoreRelatedPresident Roosevelt s President Of The United States Essay1267 Words   |  6 PagesWhen President McKinley was assassinated Vice President Theodore Roosevelt became President of the United States at the age of 43. He is the youngest president in our nation’s history. 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Compared to Roosevelt, Taft was not as energetic and ardent; his policies caused much controversy from the Republican Party and Roosevelt himself (Brinkley 606). In addition to Taft’s passivity towards Congress

Feasibility of the National Health Insurance in South Africa

In the current society; South Africa’s health care has been left with a major gap, in quality and accessibility, between the wealthy and the impoverished, in the country. With the wealthier minority having access to the private sector of medicine, a sector with a higher and better level of health care, and the poverty-stricken majority having limited access to only the public sector, the sector funded by the government. Therefore the current South African government, the ANC, has proposed a policy called the NHI; that looks to lessen the gap between the public and private sectors of medicine, by: improving the accessibility to health services for all South Africans, irrespective of whether they are employed or not, to pool funds so that equity and social solidarity will be achieved through the creation of a single fund, to obtain services on behalf on the entire population and to strengthen the under-resourced and strained public sector so as to improve health systems perfor mance. (The South African Medical Journal, 2013) This essay will be discussing what the NHI is and the feasibility of the NHI, with reference to the current level of South African health care, South African culture, socio-economic background, medicalisation, Due to the apartheid regime of South Africa prior to 1994; the South African health care system has been left fragmented with the level of health care provided to the individual being based on their racial backgrounds, with the white minorityShow MoreRelatedThe Feasibility of the National Health Insurance in South Africa514 Words   |  2 PagesHealth care is a basic human right that every person is entitled to receive. Health care programs exist throughout the world, with the intention of providing quality health care to all members of society. 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Fluid Flow Viscosity Shear - Free Sample

Questions: VISCOSITY :Shear1. (a) A yield stress material is found to be best described by the Bingham-Plastic model. Explain the terms which are required to represent the material in this model and suggest an alternative model for materials which display the following characteristics: shear-thinning, shear-thickening. Illustrate your flow models using diagrams of shear stress against shear rate and apparent viscosity against shear rate. What are the limitations of the model when applied to shear-thinning fluids and can it be modified to account for a yield stress ? Your answer should refer to the following terms and define each of them: shear stress ; shear rate ; apparent viscosity ; zero-shear viscosity; consistency. Suggest a flow model for (i) shear-thinning, (ii) shear-thickening fluids and (iii) Newtonian fluids and explain your answer using appropriate diagrams of shear stress against shear rate and apparent viscosity against shear rate. 1. (b) A pressure drop of 105 N/m2 is developed when a fluid flows through a straight circular pipe 20 m in length and 25 mm in diameter. The fluid is Newtonian with a shear viscosity of 1 Pa s. A chemical is added to the fluid and its flow properties are changed. A graph of shear stress against shear rate and apparent viscosity against shear rate shows (i) that the changed fluid is shear-thinning, with a shear-thinning power-law index = 1/3 ; and (ii) that its apparent viscosity is the same as that of the original fluid at a shear rate of 1000 s-1. Calculate the volumetric flowrate for the shear-thinning fluid at the original value of the pressure drop.1. (c) A power-law fluid has a density of 1075 kg/m3. It is pumped at a rate of 2500 kg/hour through a pipe of internal diameter 25 mm.The flow is laminar and the power law constants are K2 = 3 Pa.sn and n = 0.5. Estimate the pressure drop over a 10 m straight length of pipe and the centre-line velocity for these conditions.2. (a) You are provided with information from a viscometer for 3 different fluids. The information consists of the results of measurements of shear stress for different values of shear rate. Using appropriate diagrams, explain how you would use this information to characterise the fluids in terms of their non-Newtonian flow characteristics according to (i) the Bingh am-Plastic; (ii) the shear-thinning fluid and (iii) the shear-thickening fluid models, respectively. Suggest a suitable model for the shear-thinning fluid and discuss any limitations it may have.2.(b) A material flows in a pipe of 0.15m diameter at a velocity of 0.5 ms-1. The relation between shear stress and shear rate is = 2.5 0.2 (SI Units)As a result of temperature change the Power Law index becomes 0.25 but the apparent viscosity is unchanged when the shear rate is 100 s-1. Calculate the percentage increase in the mean velocity of the material at the same pressure drop and at the new temperature.(b) A horizontal pipe of circular cross-section and 600 mm diameter carries water under a head of 30 m with a velocity of flow of 3 m s-1. If the pipe turns through a 75 degree bend, calculate the magnitude and direction of the resultant force on the bend.NEWTONS SECOND LAW:Bernoulli1. (a) Explain how the Bernoulli Energy Equation can be obtained from considerations of the forces act ing on a streamtube of fluid. Ensure that your answer explains the significance of the terms in the Equation and its limitations. What principle could be used to create a differential head flowmeter based on this Equation ?1. (b) Water flows through a pipe of inside diameter 200 mm at a rate of 100 m3h-1. The flow abruptly enters a section which reduces the pipe diameter to 150 mm, for which the head loss is equivalent to 0.2 velocity heads based on the smaller pipe. If the gauge pressure is 80 kNm-2 upstream of the reducing section, find the force needed to hold the section in position.2. (a) You are required to create a differential head flowmeter based on a convergence in a section of pipe. Starting with an expression for the forces acting on an ideal fluid, show how you would estimate the volumetric flowrate based on measurements of differential pressure. How would you modify your answer to account for the fact that a real fluid will have viscosity and how would you ensure that energy degradation is minimised? 2.(b) A manometer uses a manometric fluid of density 1075 kg/m3 to measure the pressure drop across an orifice plate with a throat diameter of 75 mm. The orifice plate is placed inside a vertical pipe with a diameter of 225 mm and oil with a density of 860 kg/m3 is flowing upwards inside the pipe. The deflection of the manometer fluid is 0.5 m and the discharge coefficient of the orifice is 0.659. What is the flowrate of the oil? 3. (a) Beginning with Newtons Second Law calculate the force required to stabilise a 90o horizontal pipe bend against movement due to hydrodynamic reaction forces. State any assumptions you would make and explain how you would calculate the direction of the force. 3. (b) A jet of water of 22.5 cm diameter impinges normally on a flat plate moving at 0.6 m s-1 in the same direction as the jet. If the discharge is 0.14 m3 s-1 find the force and the work done per second on the plate.4. (a) Explain how you would create a differen tial head flowmeter based on convergence at an orifice plate placed in a section of pipe. Starting with an expression for the forces acting on an ideal fluid, show how you would estimate the volumetric flowrate based on measurements of differential pressure. 4. (b) A horizontal venturi meter with a discharge coefficient of 0.96 is to be used to measure the flowrate of water up to 0.025m3s-1 in a pipe of internal diameter 100 mm. The meter is connected to a differential manometer containing mercury (Specific Gravity,SG = 13.6). If the maximum allowable difference in mercury levels is 80 cm, what is the diameter of the throat ?5. (a) Using Newtons Second Law as a starting point, explain how you would create a flowmeter based on a converging section of pipe for a real (non-ideal) fluid. Your answer must explain how the degradation of energy is minimised and how you would estimate the volumetric flowrate based on measurements of differential pressure.5. (b) Obtain an expression for the force exerted by a jet of liquid which leaves a nozzle and strikes a stationary flat plate normally with a velocity v. How would this expression be modified if the plate were to be moving in the same direction as the jet with a velocity u ? Explain any assumptions which you make.5. (c) Two pressure gauges are located at tapping points 50 cm apart on a vertical Venturi tube which has an inlet diameter of 150 mm, a throat diameter of 70 mm and a discharge coefficient of 0.98. If a liquid of density 1,000 kgm-3 flows upward through the Venturi tube at a rate of 0.075 m3s-1 what is the difference in reading of the two pressure gauges ?5. (d) Droplets of oil (density = 960 kg/m3) are dispersed as an emulsion in a solution with a density and shear viscosity the same as water. Calculate how long an 80 m spherical droplet will take to rise from the bottom of a tank to the surface 1.4 m above in still liquid. Neglect acceleration effects and state any assumptions you make.RUSHTON TURBINE1. ( a) Explain what factors influence the amount of power input required for fluid agitation and mixing in a standard Rushton turbine. Use this mixer configuration to explain why scale-up under conditions of same torque per unit volume is equivalent to performing scale-up at constant tip speed in the fully turbulent region of mixing. Explain why the same mixing time criterion can be prohibitively expensive. 1. (b). You are required to agitate water with a standard Rushton turbine. The tank diameter is 2 m and you are required to work to a tip speed design criterion of 3 m s-1. Assuming a Power Number of 6, calculate:(i) the power required per unit volume of fluid(ii) the speed that the impeller should be driven at in a geometrically similar 4 m diameter tank on the basis of scale-up at equal power per unit volume State any assumptions you make 2. (a) Describe the configuration of a standard Rushton turbine and use this mixer configuration to explain (i) why the same torque per unit volume scale-up criterion is equivalent to performing scale-up at constant tip speed in the fully turbulent region of mixing; and (ii) why the conditions under which scale-up based on the same mixing time criterion could prove very expensive. (b). A horizontal pipe with an inside diameter of 200 mm has a 180o U-bend and carries a fluid of density 900 kgm-3 at a rate of 150 m3h-1. Find the force exerted by the liquid on the bend if the gauge pressures upstream and downstream of the bend are 100 kPa and 80 kPa, respectively.3. (a) What are the main parameters influencing power input for fluid agitation and mixing. Explain why the same mixing time scale-up criterion may be prohibitively expensive. Refer to the fully turbulent region of mixing and the standard Rushton-Turbine configuration in your answer. 3(b). Tests on a small scale tank 0.3 m in diameter show that a blending process between two miscible liquids (both aqueous with properties the same as water) is complete after 1 minute when using an impeller speed of 250 revolutions per minute.It is decided to scale up the process to a tank of 2.5 m diameter using the criterion of constant tip speed.(i) What speed should be chosen for the larger impeller ? (ii) What power will be required ? (iii) What will be the blend time in the large tank ? State any assumptions you make. Assume a standard Rushton-turbine configuration, and a Power Num ber of 6.LAMINAR/TURBULENT FLOW: Reynolds Number1. (a) Explain the meaning of the terms friction factor, Reynolds Number and relative roughness and how they are used in the construction of the Moody plot. Verify the relationship between friction factor and Reynolds Number given in the Moody plot for the laminar flow region. 1. (b) A foam consists of droplets of oil (density 960 kg/m3) which are dispersed as an emulsion in a solution whose density and viscosity is the same as water. Calculate how long an 80 micron diameter ( 1 m = 1 x 10-6 m ) spherical drop will take to rise from the bottom of a tank to the surface 1.4 m above in a still liquid (neglect acceleration effects).2. (a) The flow of a viscous fluid past a spherical particle is characterised by the Reynolds Number, Re. Explain the form of the curve obtained when Re is plotted against the Drag Coefficient. Ensure that your answer includes:(i) an explanation of the terms involved in Re and the Drag Coefficient, (ii) an expla nation of the term 'separation', (iii) an account of the changing drag force, F, on the particle. 2. (b) A water softener consists of a vertical cylindrical pipe 0.5 m long and 50 mm internal diameter packed with an ion-exchange resin consisting of spherical particles whose diameter is 1 mm. The bed porosity is 0.33. The column runs full of water, under a head of 0.2 m, but water trickles out slowly from the bottom of the column which is supported by a perforated plate. Calculate the flowrate and verify any assumptions which you make. Answers: 1. a) Bingham plastic can be defined as such kind of viscoplastic materials which acts as the rigid body at minimum stresses and acts as the viscous flow at maximum stresses. It is widely used in drilling engineering for model of mathematical flow of the mud. The Bingham plastic model has been showcased below; The alternative model is Carreau model which displays the shear-thinning and shear thickening characteristics of the model. The Carreau model is such kind of Newtonian generalized fluid where the viscosity of the material always depends on rate of shear of the material. The equation of the Carreau model is given by, , where the material coefficients are n, and is the viscosity at zero rate, is the viscosity at the shear rate of infinite, relaxation time is and n is the power index. The above diagram showcases the graph plot between the shear rate and the dynamic viscosity. The equation, = K( )n1 is given then reduced form of the Carreau model where k is consistency factor. The above plot depicts the relationship between the shear rate and the viscosity. The plot showcases the decreases of the viscosity of the fluid of shear thinning materials with the increasing of the shear rate. Limitations The limitation of the model is that it cannot be fitted for any kind of polymer solutions in minimum and maximum shear range. The ranges between the lower and higher shear ranges showcase the zero shear viscosity and the infinite values of shear viscosity. This kind of model is best suited for the medium level of the polymer industry. i) Shear thinning model The above diagram showcases the shear thinning model which describes the plot between the viscosity and the shear rate. ii) Shear thickening model Herchel-Bulkley fluid model showcases the shear thickening condition of the viscosity. The plot showcases the relationship between the shear rate and the viscosity in Herchel-Bulkley fluid model. iii) Newtonian fluids The example of Newtonian fluids is the Bingham model which is described below in the plot. b) The volumetric flow arte equation is given by, (8u/D= 4Q/R^3) = 8*1/3 /25 =4Q/ 3.14*(0.02)^3= 6.70*10^-7 m^3/s. c) The flow characteristics is denoted by, 8u/D = 8 / 25 = 0.32 s^-1 (8u/D)n-1 = 0.32 (0.5-1)= 1.76s ap = K(8u/D)^-0.5 = 3*0.32^-0.5=1.020 Pa sAnd Re = uD/ ap = 25*1/1.020= 24.50So, the pressure drop is given by, PF = 4f(L/di) u2 /2 = 2*0.0075(25)*0.01/25 = 1.5 Pa. 2. a) The above diagram depicts the plot between shear rate and the shear stress of the three kinds of fluids such as shear thickening, shear thinning and the Bingham plastic. Shear thickening plot showcases that the rate of the shear increases with the increasing of the dilatants fluid. The shear thinning fluid can be called as the Pseudo plastic fluid materials. The Bingham plastic graph plot does not pass through origin point of the graph. Limitations The limitation of shear thickening fluid that it cannot pass through any kinds of solutions. b)The calculation is given by, = /P = 100/2.5 = 40*100 = 4000 m/sc) FX = -P1A1 - P2A2 cos(b) - d Q [V1 + V2 cos(b)] and Fy = P2 A2 sin(b) + d V2 Q sin(b) so, F can be denoted as F= (Fx2 + Fy2)1/2 , FX = 706.5*sin(75) = 682.42 Newton's Second Law 1. a) The Bernoulli Energy Equation is stated that the motion of fluid is increase by decreasing its pressure or its potential energy. The mathematical expression of Bernoullis theorem is like:PV+ m/2v2 = Constant, This is a correct statement to proceed with steam fluid for different cross sectional areas. Now the volume V at any point of this steam flow is the sum of its kinetic energy and potential energy. The equation looks like that V= mv2/2 + PVNow the energy of a fluid is moving from one point to another point with same motion then its energy equation is like P1V+mv12 = P2V +mv22 By using m=v, Bernoulli energy equation can obtain, that is: P1-p2 = /2(v22 v11) This equation derives the Bernoulli energy equation with the help of Newtons second law. This theorem is used in fluid mechanics for steady streamline regions of flow. It can control the motion of fluid by decreasing the pressure of air or potential energy of fluid. The Bernoulli theorem is limited for heat transformation of a particle including its mechanical transformation. This theorem will reduce the thermal energy. With the help of nonlinear relationship in between flow and pressure, an accuracy of flow measurement can change the pressure of flow meter. This common relationship in between pressure and fluid flow can control the flow meter pressure. This is a successful approach of Bernoullis theorem to create the main principle of flow meter. b)The velocity for larger and smaller pipes isV1= 4Q/3.14d12 = 4*100/3600/3.14*0.22 = 0.884 ms -1 AndV2= 1.67 ms -1 This is the head loss based on the velocity of smaller pipeHL= 0.2 * 1.57^2/2g= 0.025The pressure in 200 mm diameter including 80kNm-2 including 150 mm diameter pipe is found by applying Bernoullis equationP2= P1 + /2(V12 +V22) gHL = 80 * 10^3 +500*(0.884^2-1.57^2) 1000*g*0.025 = 78.913 Nm-2 The upstream and downstream pressure are, P1a1 = 2513 NAnd P2a2 = 1394 NThe force in the X direction isFX = 1000* 100/3600*(1.57-0.884) 2513 + 1394 = -1100 NSo, 1.1 kNm-2 is the opposite direction to hold the reducing sector in position. 2. a) Figure: section of a pipe Here static head = P/yDynamic head = (P/y + v^2/2g)Procedures Venturis Nossles OrificesIt depends on Flowrate Fluid properties Element geometry Figure: flow meter based on pipe Bernoullis equation of energy conservation P1 + 1/21U12 =P2 + 1/22U22 = constant =P0 P0 = total pressure at medium Total sum of dynamic and static pressure is same throughout the whole pipe p = P1 P2 =/2(U22 U12) Volumetric flow rate is defined as Q A1 = pipes area A2= pipes flow area P1 = upstream pressure P2 = restriction pressure = density C= correction factor Viscosity of fluid is basically the measurement of the resistance to steady deformation by tensile stress or shear stress. Real fluid has also effected by tensile stress and shear stress. So it is ensured that fluid has viscosity. From the Bernoullis equation it is ensured that the degradation of energy is minimized. b) Density of manometric fluid = 1075 kg/m3 Diameter = 75 mm The diameter of orifice plate = 225 mm Density of orifice plate = 860 kg/ m3 Deflection of manometer fluid = 0.5 m Discharge coefficient of the orifice = 0.659 Flow rate of the oil = Q = VA = V * D2/4 [A = D2/4] Where Q = flow rate V= Viscosity A = Area D= Diameter of the pipe Flow rate of oil = 0.5** 2252/4 0.659* * 752/4 = /4(0.5 * 2252 0.659 * 752) = 16969.019 mm = 16.969 m3 s-1 The flow rate of oil is 16.97 m3 s-1 3. a) The pressure required to stabilize the pipe against movement is done by applying Bernoulli in between V1 and V2 points is as follows P1 + V12 = p2 + V12 So the pressure forces Fpx1 = p1A1 = 1200 N Fpy2 = p2A2 Assume the inlet pressure of V1 is 4m/s and the outlet pressure V2 is 16 m/s So the direction will go through from inlet pressure to outlet pressure that is from V1 to V2 So, v = (4^2 + 16^2) = 16.49 m/s And Fm = m2v= 659.7 N Now the pressure for resolve section Fmy = 659.7 sin 75.96 = 640 N Fmx = 659.7 cos 75.96 = 160 N So, the total force is acting at X direction is, 1200+160= 1360 N The force acting at y direction = 0 + 640= 640 N Here no initial force is acting towards Y direction so the direction of the actual force is acting towards X Axis. b) The resulting force of the jet is F= m v1 {2(1-cos)} F = 45 N 4 a) A differential head flow meter based on convergence at an orifice plate placed in a section of pipe Here P = Pressure D = Density Q = Flow rate Flow meter is basically a process which is used to determine the volume of the gas which is passing through the nozzle with the per unit time. The creation of differential head flow meter is depended on three procedures. These procedures are basically Venturis procedure, Nozzles procedure and Orifices procedure. The orifice procedure is dependent on the Flow rate of the fluid, various properties of the fluid and the geometry of element. Volumetric flow rate Figure: Orifice meter pipe The volumetric flow rate is basically defined by the below equation: Q= flow rate C= correction factor = density A1 = pipes area A2= flow area of the pipe P1 = upstream pressure P2 = restriction pressure b) Discharge coefficient of venture meter = 0.96 Flow rate of water = 0.025 m3 s-1 Internal diameter = 100 mm Specific gravity = 13.6 Maximum difference = 80 cm [in mercury] The equation of flow rate Q = u2A2 = Cd {2R (pm p) g/p}* A1A2/ (A12 A22) Where A= Area P = density G= gravity A2 = 13.6 * 2* 80/0.025 * 1002 = 33 meter The diameter of the throat is 33 meter. 5. a) The most common flow meter is obtained from Newtons second law. In numerical form the common formula is written as: m1 = m2 = A1V1/v2 or A2V2/v1 If the V is constant then the equation is simplified to a new form A1V1= A2V2 Using Bernoullis theorem the flow meter of a pipe for a real fluid is represented as V1 A1= V2A2 or V1= A2V2 /A1 b) Suppose a Nozzle has a n inlet area is 0.005 m2 and the discharge diameter is combined with its atmosphere. The gauge bar including inlet of the nozzle is 3 Bar. Since the area of vertical place is coming from Fv =0 by using gauge pressures, so the final force is Zero at exit point. Fpx2 = 0, so FH = 1500 0= 1500 N to the right angle. c) The Bernoullis equation has been stated below, p1/+v12/2g=p2/g+v22/2g+z2 Continuity equation has been mentioned below, A1v1=a2v2 After the rearrangement equation of the differential pressure has bee stated below, P1-p2=g(v1^2/2g((a1/a2)^2-1)+z2-z1) Equation of the flow rate is Q=Cdav1 Differences between two pressure gauges= P1-P2=500x (.075/(.98x3, 141x.15^2/4) ^2x ((.15/.07)^4-1)+2x9.8x.5) =290,232.18 NRA^-2 =2902 KNm-^2 Rushton Turbine 1. a) The factors are the Reynolds number, power number, flow meter and the blend time of the dimensionless. Scale up under the conditions of same torque per unit volume is equivalent to performing scale up at the constant speed in the turbulent region of mixing because, torque per volume can be termed as the mixing intensity in fluid velocities and it related to the effective motion of the mixer. b) i)The equation is given by, Where P0 is the dimensionless power number, N is the speed of the rotational, is the fluid density. So, P= 6*3^3*2 = 324 Pa ii) so, N^3 = P/p0 D^5 = 324/(6*4^5)= 0.03 m/s where, Where P0 is the dimensionless power number, N is the speed of the rotational, is the fluid density. 2. a) The factors are the Reynolds number, power number, flow meter and the blend time of the dimensionless. Scale up under the conditions of same torque per unit volume is equivalent to performing scale up at the constant speed in the turbulent region of mixing because, torque per volume can be termed as the mixing intensity in fluid velocities and it related to the effective motion of the mixer. b) The equation is given by, FX = -P1A1 - P2A2 cos(b) - d Q [V1 + V2 cos(b)] and Fy = P2 A2 sin(b) + d V2 Q sin(b)FX = -100*200- 80*200cos (180)- 150(900)= -139000 Fy = 0 so, F = 139000 pa 3. a) The main parameters are which influencing the power input for the agitation and mixing of the fluids are mixing time and the circulation time. The same mixing time scale-up criterion may be prohibitively expensive because of larger tank mixture. b) i)The required speed can be calculated by, N^3 = P/p0 D^5 = 100/(6*0.3^5) = 5.29*10^-5 ii) The required power can be calculated by, = 6*250 30.3^5 = 227812.5 Pa iii) So, the required blend time can be calculated by, 227812.5 * 5.29*10^-5*227812.5^-(1.69/5.29) = 0.234 Laminar/Turbulent Flow: Reynoldss Number 1. a) The head loss or various pressure losses due to the loss of the friction can be called as the friction factor. Friction factor can also be referred to as the Darcy friction factor or the Moody friction factor. Renolds number can be defined as such kind of dimensionless quantities which can help to predict the similar kinds of flow patterns in various fluid situations. The ratio between the roughness of the duct and the diameter of the hydraulic can be referred to as the relative roughness. Which can be expressed as r = k / dh The above diagram depicts the moody plot between the friction factor and the Reynolds number. b) The length of the oil droplet can be calculated by, mg= d Where m is the mass of the oil droplets, d is diameter of the droplet and is length of the droplet. So, volume can be calculated by, 4/3 r3 = 4/3*3.41*(80*10^-4) = 0.036 m^3 So, length can be calculated by, 0.036/ (3.41* 80*10^-4) = 1.31 2. a) The above plot showcases the relationship between the Reynolds number and the drag coefficient. The separation can be termed as the relationship between the removal of the impurities and the components of the substances. b) Flow rate can be calculated by, * (pipe diameter) 2* velocity = *3.14*(50)2* 0.33 = 647.625 References Bourne, M. (2002).Food texture and viscosity. San Diego: Academic Press. Bowdler, D. and Leventhall, H. (2011).Wind turbine noise. Brentwood, Essex: Multi-Science Pub. Boyce, M. (2006).Gas turbine engineering handbook. Boston: Gulf Professional Pub. Chapman, S. and Cowling, T. (1970).The mathematical theory of non-uniform gases. [Cambridge, Eng.]: Cambridge University Press. Cohen, H., Rogers, G. and Saravanamuttoo, H. (1987).Gas turbine theory. Burnt Mill, Harlow, Essex, England: Longman Scientific Technical. Du Bois, W. (1996).The souls of Black folk. Charlottesville, Va.: University of Virginia Library. Falcone, M. and Makridakis, C. (2001).Numerical methods for viscosity solutions and applications. Singapore: World Scientific. Fleming, W. and Soner, H. (2006).Controlled Markov processes and viscosity solutions. New York: Springer. Fowler, H. and Gowers, E. (1965).A dictionary of modern English usage. New York: Oxford Univ. Press. Giampaolo, T. (2006).Gas turbine handbook. Lilburn, GA: Fairmount Press. Glasstone, S., Laidler, K. and Eyring, H. (1941).The theory of rate processes. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company. Hudson, W. (n.d.).Green mansions. Champaign, Ill.: Project Gutenberg. King, P. (1981).The turbine. [Dunedin, N.Z.: P. King. Lefebvre, A. (1983).Gas turbine combustion. Washington: Hemisphere Pub. Corp. Maugham, W. (1936).Of human bondage. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday. Maugham, W. (1995).The moon and sixpence. Champaign, Ill.: Project Gutenberg. Neilson, R. (1902).The steam turbine. London: Longmans, Green, and Co. Oates, G. (1997).Aerothermodynamics of gas turbine and rocket propulsion. Reston, VA: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. Philbrick, W. (2009).The mostly true adventures of Homer P. Figg. New York: Blue Sky Press. Tuchman, B. (1962).The guns of August. New York: Macmillan. Tuchman, B. (1978).A distant mirror. New York: Knopf. TURBINE., (1904).Die Turbine. Zeitschrift fur modernen Schnellbetrieb, fur Dampf-, Gas-, Wind- Wasserturbinen. (Organ der Turbinentechnischen Gesellschaft.) Jahrg. 1. Hft. 1-Jahrg. 9. Hft. 24. Okt. 1904-Sept. 1913. Berlin. Walsh, P. and Fletcher, P. (1998).Gas turbine performance. Oxford: Blackwell Science. Yeats, W. (1956).The collected poems of W.B. Yeats. New York: Macmillan.

Robert Frost Essays (782 words) - Robert Frost,

Robert Frost Robert Lee Frost was born in San Francisco, California, on March 26, 1874 and was the son of William Prescott Frost and Isabelle Moodie Frost. After his father died in 1885, the family returned to Lawrence, Massachusetts, which was the home of Frost's grandparents. There he grew up through his high school years. After less than a year at Dartmouth College, he left to work in textile mill and to marry Elinor White, a high school classmate. When his academic experience at Harvard disappointed him, Frost returned to Lawrence and had a variety of jobs. Finally, he became a chicken farmer in Derry, New Hampshire, on property that he bought from his grandfather. In 1912, Frost took his family to England, hoping that the residence there would help advance his poetic career. A British publisher accepted his first two volumes of verse, A Boy's Will (1913) and North of Boston (1914). Both were published in the United States in 1915, the year the Frost family returned him and settled on a farm in Franconia, New Hampshire. He then became a summer farmer and poet-teacher, just like he was in Derry. Except for brief periods at the University of Michigan and Harvard, he spent his academic years 1916-1963 mainly at Amherst College. Meanwhile, as he was finishing the poem collection New Hampshire (1923), he decided that most of his living should be done in Vermont, where he helped create and sustain the Writers' Conference at Middlebury College's Bread Loaf School of English. Frost's eventual poetic success was counter-pointed by much personal grief and loss. Several of the Frost children were stillborn or died in infancy - they are remembered in the poem Home Burial. Frost's son committed suicide and his daughter became insane. After his wife's death in 1938, the poet lived either alone or with friends. He died in Boston on January 29, 1963. Frost kept his religious faith mostly to himself or confided it only to close friends (Smith). When it entered his poetry at all, it was usually in a very guarded fashion. Earlier poems such as Sitting by a Bush in Broad Daylight and Not All There imply religious attitudes, and later ones - A Masque of Mercy, Accidentally on Purpose, and Kitty Hawk - are explicitly religious. The ?dark? poems - Spring Pools, A Leaf Trader, Design and The Draft Horse - expressing tragic moods rather than hard-won convictions, and the poems of endurance, like Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening, seem more deeply felt and more perfectly executed. And it seems Frost knew instinctively that they would have more appeal in a naturalistic age. Robert Frost, an established American poet, lived to become his country's unofficial poet laureate. He won the Pulitzer Prize for poetry four times and was awarded the Bollingen Prize posthumously. The U.S. Senate honored him on his 75th and 85th birthdays, and he had a prominent part in the inauguration ceremony for President John F. Kennedy in 1961, speaking the poem The Gift Outright, which he had written for the occasion. The poem, Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening, is about a man, or the author, that was going through his hectic life and than all the sudden, one evening, he actually stopped to look at his surroundings. He realized how beautiful his life and this world was and that sometimes there's too much going on to enjoy this. This poem is a metaphor for life. So many people are involved in so many things that they can never enjoy what's happening right now in their lives. The author sits for a minute, studies his surroundings for once and then realizes that there is too much to do to just sit there. He finishes the poem by saying, ?The woods are lovely, dark and deep, But I have promises to keep, And miles to go before I sleep, And miles to go before I sleep.? This is the part where he comes back to his senses and realizes that he can't just sit there, that he must return to the real world and finish what has to be done in life before he can actually stop. The reason I picked this poem is because I can completely relate to it. Sometimes, in

Professions for Women Essay Example

Professions for Women Essay When your secretary invited me to come here, she told me that your Society is concerned with the employment of women and she suggested that I might tell you something about my own professional experiences. It is true I am a woman; it is true I am employed; but what professional experiences have I had? It is difficult to say. My profession is literature; and in that profession there are fewer experiences for women than in any other, with the exception of the stagefewer, I mean, that are peculiar to women. For the road was cut many years agoby Fanny Burney, by Aphra Behn, by Harriet Martineau, by Jane Austen, by George Eliotmany famous women, and many more unknown and forgotten, have been before me, making the path smooth, and regulating my steps. Thus, when I came to write, there were very few material obstacles in my way. Writing was a reputable and harmless occupation. The family peace was not broken by the scratching of a pen. No demand was made upon the family purse. For ten and sixpence one can buy paper enough to write all the plays of Shakespeareif one has a mind that way. Pianos and models, Paris, Vienna and Berlin, masters and mistresses, are not needed by a writer. The cheapness of writing paper is, of course, the reason why women have succeeded as writers before they have succeeded in the other professions. But to tell you my storyit is a simple one. You have only got to figure to yourselves a girl in a bedroom with a pen in her hand. We will write a custom essay sample on Professions for Women specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Professions for Women specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Professions for Women specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer She had only to move that pen from left to rightfrom ten oclock to one. Then it occurred to her to do what is simple and cheap enough after allto slip a few of those pages into an envelope, fix a penny stamp in the corner, and drop the envelope into the red box at the corner. It was thus that I became a journalist; and my effort was rewarded on the first day of the following montha very glorious day it was for meby a letter from an editor containing a cheque for one pound ten shillings and sixpence. But to show you how little I deserve to be called a professional woman, how little I know of the struggles and difficulties of such lives, I have to admit that instead of spending that sum upon bread and butter, rent, shoes and stockings, or butchers bills, I went out and bought a cata beautiful cat, a Persian cat, which very soon involved me in bitter disputes with my neighbours. What could be easier than to write articles and to buy Persian cats with the profits? But wait a moment. Articles have to be about something. Mine, I seem to remember, was about a novel by a famous man. And while I was writing this review, I discovered that if I were going to review books I should need to do battle with a certain phantom. And the phantom was a woman, and when I came to know her better I called her after the heroine of a famous poem, The Angel in the House. It was she who used to come between me and my paper when I was writing reviews. It was she who bothered me and wasted my time and so tormented me that at last I killed her. You who come of a younger and happier generation may not have heard of heryou may not know what I mean by the Angel in the House. I will describe her as shortly as I can. She was intensely sympathetic. She was immensely charming. She was utterly unselfish. She excelled in the difficult arts of family life. She sacrificed herself daily. If there was chicken, she took the leg; if there was a draught she sat in itin short she was so constituted that she never had a mind or a wish of her own, but preferred to sympathize always with the minds and wishes of others. Above allI need not say itshe was pure. Her purity was supposed to be her chief beautyher blushes, her great grace. In those daysthe last of Queen Victoriaevery house had its Angel. And when I came to write I encountered her with the very first words. The shadow of her wings fell on my page; I heard the rustling of her skirts in the room. Directly, that is to say, I took my pen in my hand to review that novel by a famous man, she slipped behind me and whispered: My dear, you are a young woman. You are writing about a book that has been written by a man. Be sympathetic; be tender; flatter; deceive; use all the arts and wiles of our sex. Never let anybody guess that you have a mind of your own. Above all, be pure. And she made as if to guide my pen. I now record the one act for which I take some credit to myself, though the credit rightly belongs to some excellent ancestors of mine who left me a certain sum of moneyshall we say five hundred pounds a year? so that it was not necessary for me to depend solely on charm for my living. I turned upon her and caught her by the throat. I did my best to kill her. My excuse, if I were to be had up in a court of law, would be that I acted in self-defence. Had I not killed her she would have killed me. She would have plucked the heart out of my writing. For, as I found, directly I put pen to paper, you cannot review even a novel without having a mind of your own, without expressing what you think to be the truth about human relations, morality, sex. And all these questions, according to the Angel of the House, cannot be dealt with freely and openly by women; they must charm, they must conciliate, they mustto put it bluntlytell lies if they are to succeed. Thus, whenever I felt the shadow of her wing or the radiance of her halo upon my page, I took up the inkpot and flung it at her. She died hard. Her fictitious nature was of great assistance to her. It is far harder to kill a phantom than a reality. She was always creeping back when I thought I had despatched her. Though I flatter myself that I killed her in the end, the struggle was severe; it took much time that had better have been spent upon learning Greek grammar; or in roaming the world in search of adventures. But it was a real experience; it was an experience that was bound to befall all women writers at that time. Killing the Angel in the House was part of the occupation of a woman writer. But to continue my story. The Angel was dead; what then remained? You may say that what remained was a simple and common objecta young woman in a bedroom with an inkpot. In other words, now that she had rid herself of falsehood, that young woman had only to be herself. Ah, but what is herself? I mean, what is a woman? I assure you, I do not know. I do not believe that you know. I do not believe that anybody can know until she has expressed herself in all the arts and professions open to human skill. That indeed is one of the reasons why I have come here out of respect for you, who are in process of showing us by your experiments what a woman is, who are in process Of providing us, by your failures and successes, with that extremely important piece of information. But to continue the story of my professional experiences. I made one pound ten and six by my first review; and I bought a Persian cat with the proceeds. Then I grew ambitious. A Persian cat is all very well, I said; but a Persian cat is not enough. I must have a motor car. And it was thus that I became a novelistfor it is a very strange thing that people will give you a motor car if you will tell them a story. It is a still stranger thing that there is nothing so delightful in the world as telling stories. It is far pleasanter than writing reviews of famous novels. And yet, if I am to obey your secretary and tell you my professional experiences as a novelist, I must tell you about a very strange experience that befell me as a novelist. And to understand it you must try first to imagine a novelists state of mind. I hope I am not giving away professional secrets if I say that a novelists chief desire is to be as unconscious as possible. He has to induce in himself a state of perpetual lethargy. He wants life to proceed with the utmost quiet and regularity. He wants to see the same faces, to read the same books, to do the same things day after day, month after month, while he is writing, so that nothing may break the illusion in which he is livingso that nothing may disturb or disquiet the mysterious nosings about, feelings round, darts, dashes and sudden discoveries of that very shy and illusive spirit, the imagination. I suspect that this state is the same both for men and women. Be that as it may, I want you to imagine me writing a novel in a state of trance. I want you to figure to yourselves a girl sitting with a pen in her hand, which for minutes, and indeed for hours, she never dips into the inkpot. The image that comes to my mind when I think of this girl is the image of a fisherman lying sunk in dreams on the verge of a deep lake with a rod held out over the water. She was letting her imagination sweep unchecked round every rock and cranny of the world that lies submerged in the depths of our unconscious being. Now came the experience, the experience that I believe to be far commoner with women writers than with men. The line raced through the girls fingers. Her imagination had rushed away. It had sought the pools, the depths, the dark places where the largest fish slumber. And then there was a smash. There was an explosion. There was foam and confusion. The imagination had dashed itself against something hard. The girl was roused from her dream. She was indeed in a state of the most acute and difficult distress. To speak without figure she had thought of something, something about the body, about the passions which it was unfitting for her as a woman to say. Men, her reason told her, would be shocked. The consciousness ofwhat men will say of a woman who speaks the truth about her passions had roused her from her artists state of unconsciousness. She could write no more. The trance was over. Her imagination could work no longer. This I believe to be a very common experience with women writersthey are impeded by the extreme conventionality of the other sex. For though men sensibly allow themselves great freedom in these respects, I doubt that they realize or can control the extreme severity with which they condemn such freedom in women. These then were two very genuine experiences of my own. These were two of the adventures of my professional life. The firstkilling the Angel in the HouseI think I solved. She died. But the second, telling the truth about my own experiences as a body, I do not think I solved. I doubt that any woman has solved it yet. The obstacles against her are still immensely powerfuland yet they are very difficult to define. Outwardly, what is simpler than to write books? Outwardly, what obstacles are there for a woman rather than for a man? Inwardly, I think, the case is very different; she has still many ghosts to fight, many prejudices to overcome. Indeed it will be a long time still, I think, before a woman can sit down to write a book without finding a phantom to be slain, a rock to be dashed against. And if this is so in literature, the freest of all professions for women, how is it in the new professions which you are now for the first time entering? Those are the questions that I should like, had I time, to ask you. And indeed, if I have laid stress upon these professional experiences of mine, it is because I believe that they are, though in different forms, yours also. Even when the path is nominally openwhen there is nothing to prevent a woman from being a doctor, a lawyer, a civil servantthere are many phantoms and obstacles, as I believe, looming in her way. To discuss and define them is I think of great value and importance; for thus only can the labour be shared, the difficulties be solved. But besides this, it is necessary also to discuss the ends and the aims for which we are fighting, for which we are doing battle with these formidable obstacles. Those aims cannot be taken for granted; they must be perpetually questioned and examined. The whole position, as I see ithere in this hall surrounded by women practising for the first time in history I know not how many different professionsis one of extraordinary interest and importance. You have won rooms of your own in the house hitherto exclusively owned by men. You are able, though not without great labour and effort, to pay the rent. You are arning your five hundred pounds a year. But this freedom is only a beginningthe room is your own, but it is still bare. It has to be furnished; it has to be decorated; it has to be shared. How are you going to furnish it, how are you going to decorate it? With whom are you going to share it, and upon what terms? These, I think are questions of the utmost importance and interest. Fo r the first time in history you are able to ask them; for the first time you are able to decide for yourselves what the answers should be. Willingly would I stay and discuss those questions and answersbut not to-night. My time is up; and I must cease.

The P.C Essays - DOS, Booting, Personal Computer, Free Essays

The P.C Essays - DOS, Booting, Personal Computer, Free Essays The P.C kobi fankulo i/6 It's began more than 20 years ago, Apple 2 , the computer of Jobs Wazniac appeared the innovations were surprising . Friendly computer with keyboard and surface that you can put a monitor above , 4K memory and dos that constant from the boot , that fixed in the memory Rom . The most great innovation was channel Bus that every one can built for himself stuck cards , that's how began the I . B . M suitable industry . In 1981 an I . B . M p.c appear P.C - XT c.p.u 8088 and well based dos , disk called p.c - dos that acquired from Microsoft , with possibility to setup 2 drives , green professional monitor , superlative keyboard , possibility of enlargment the memory up to 64K , hard disk and the computer speed 4.77MH ( mega hertz ) . In 1982 came the P.C - AT with 286 cpu , 512KB memory and hard disk of 20MB in the price of 6,000 $ and 16BIT channel that have been opened to suitable copy from I . B . M p.c to Apple 2 the prices went down . In 1986 Compaq company completed her 386 computer development of Intel company and anticipate I . B . M in the new c.p.u adoption . In the presence of the manufacturers stood 2 possibilities to continue after I . B . M in the way of PS / 2 or to continue the independend way that Compac company showed . I . B . M demended for the use rights systems , the licence payment are recoiling . Her politics conected the new meterial to OS / 2 dos . These who didn't understood continued with I . B . M , all the rest continue with I . S . A architecture , until today I. B . M hasn't recover from the astartegy mistakes series that brought her to be the only one p.c manufacture that not manufacated I . B . M suitable . In the begining of the 90 Intel company started to supply the fourth generation with 486 c.p.u and memory of 64MB . In 1993 began the age of the 586 pentum the fifth generation of the Intel c.p.u p.c . In our days the p.c including c.p.u 486 or 586 , hard disk up to 540MB , modem and super vga monitor . P.C - ( Personal Computer ) Rom - ( Read Only Memory ) Ram - ( Read Acess Memory ) Boot - Dos - ( Disk Operation System ) KB - MB - Hard disk - Channel - C.P.U - 586 , 486 , 386 , 286 , 8088XT PS / 2 - ( Personal System ) OS / 2 - ( Operator System ) Architecture - Keyboard - Intel - Appear - I.B.M suitable - .. Manufacturer - Sound blaster - Modem - Bibliography the great entziclopade of u.s.a

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3 Businesses in UAE - Essay Example Food products and personal effects were well stocked and in addition to this, the hypermarket specialized in clothing more specifically footwear. The hypermarket had good hypermarket attendants who would help the customers in finding products they were looking for within this huge retail store. The attendants were uniformly dressed so that one would identify and distinguish an employee and a fellow customer in the hypermarket.However, there was a problem in communication as some attendants at the retail store could only speak their indigenous language of Arabic and thus it became a little difficult in conveying messages. It sought the intervention of attendants conversant with English to communicate what I needed. Nevertheless, the cashiers were fast as they worked on their clients quickly by calculating and handing back change to the customers so that there would be no occasions of long cues at the counter. The hypermarket, Pic N save seemed to have a competitive edge in their busin ess practice. The hypermarket was involved in a reward scheme where customers who bought products worth a certain limit of money, they would win some specific points that after accumulation would make the customers redeem them for gift products that were on offer. This seemed as an innovative way of pulling customers to this retail store. Therefore, the future of this company seems to be bright as the company focuses on attracting its clients who are the customers to its retail store. The disadvantage that would be a hindrance to the effectiveness of the company as mentioned earlier is the communication barrier in some of the employees that are working in the hypermarket. Additional, the easy of doing international business with the market is hampered as it only has physical and mailing contacts which become time consuming when business deals of timely nature are concerned. The second business that was investigated was a rather big one, the Emirates airlines. The Emirates is one of the major airlines the United Arab Emirates. In investigating the business, I had to book a flight and get a feel of the transportation comfort and efficiency. To begin with, the booking process was fairly easy as I could make my booking through their website which is http://www.emirates.com. In the website were a variety of services among booking that made the problem of moving up to their permanent offices being unnecessary. Thus their services appeared well put and convenient for many people who would have difficulty in moving to their offices to make inquires and or bookings. Furthermore, their services were in internationally recognized language of English despite the fact that the company is of Arabic origin where the language and writing is Arabic. This was convenient for international customers who wanted to seek it services as English is an internationally recognized form of communication in speech and writing. The company has a high competitive advantage over all the other airlines in the UAE. The reason for this is that it has a wide spread coverage of its services within and outside the boundaries of the UAE as its planes fly into over 60 countries across the six continents of the world. In addition to this, the company uses the Boeing 777-200LR as its model for its fleet of planes. This model of the Boeing plane is considered to be fuel efficient considering the high costs of fuel that we are witnessing in this current time. The plane holds the record for its ability to make

Land Law Degree Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Land Law Degree - Case Study Example Hence, the main issue is whether they have feasible options which would enable them to gain full or total control of their property. From this case study, it can only be implied that they were able to secure title register which in turn enabled them to be registered as joint proprietors of this property. However, according to the Law of Property Act 1989 section (1) (3), it should be noted that for them to be deemed to be the owners of the real estate property, they shall have to be in possession of a valid deed stating as such. According to this section, a deed may only be taken to be valid if it was produced in writing through signing by the seller of the land or property in the presence of witnesses who must also attest to the validity of such signature. The other option as it is provided by this Act is that the seller may direct, and in his presence as well as that of two witnesses; who must also append their signature. The third option which was available to Nitin and Miriam to them in terms of acquiring the deed was through the delivery of such document by Paul to them in person or by any other person who might have been authorised to do so. A closer look at this case study does not address these issues comprehensively. However, it is justifiable to infer that they were indeed able to obtain the deed subject to their registration. ... Most notably, ownership is usually accompanied with the rights of possession and enjoyment by the actual owners. On a positive rejoinder, Thomas (276) notes that proprietary rights carry with them the right of easements and profits as it is provided by the land law. With particular case, it is apparent that Nitin and Miriam have not been able to enjoy any of these rights. With particular reference to Amy, it is possible for them to sue for damages on grounds that Paul assigned or sublet part of the property without their consent. However, for this to hold, Nitin and Miriam shall have to prove that to the satisfaction of the court that indeed Paul made that decision after they had legally acquired the real estate property. That being the case, then they do not have to wait until next year since Amy is actually trespassing by virtue of the fact that she was assigned the stable block by a stranger; Paul having sold the property to them. In this regard, there is no legal lease agreement between the landlord and the tenant in the first place. With this in mind, Amy can be sued for trespassing on pr ivate property as well for damages and thus be able to collect the rent as the legitimate owner of this real estate property. On the other hand, Nitin and Miriam have legal grounds to withhold their consent of lease to Amy according to the Landlord and Tenant Act 1988. Based this act, they have grounds owing to the fact that Amy is not an individual of an excellent character due to her drug abuse history. The fact that Amy is actually a noisy neighbour due to her music career provides another ground for Nitin and Miriam to evict her from their property even if such lease agreement was signed by Paul before the

Government Regulation of Abortion Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Government Regulation of Abortion - Essay Example When the question of rights is brought up, there are always points and counterpoints flung across the table. Rights have become the epitome of our existence on one hand and also the topic of many a coffee table conversation on the other. Besides, if one claims the right to exist, one wonders if the corollary is thought of - how would one exist Perhaps, another very compelling question would be the fact that a mother has to bring forth a life and ensure its sustainability. Therefore, the question of abortion has to be viewed not just from the point of the unborn infant, but also from the viewpoint of the mother and others associated with the newborn. A discussion on abortion and its relevance in American society would be incomplete without a reference to Roe v. Wade, the all-important case that gave all pro-choice supporters a boost. The United States Supreme Court upheld the view that a mother could abort her fetus up to a "point at which the fetus becomes 'viable'" (410 U.S. 113, 1973). Here the court described 'viability' at around 24 weeks of pregnancy. Apart from this, the court also mentioned that the mother could choose to abort a fetus, if she had reason to believe that her physical health was in jeopardy. This landmark decision has led to heated debates and not much of an end in sight. " the Issue Legalized abortion has become the most hashed-over political and theological debate in a nation devoted to debates." (Baird & Rosenbaum, 2001). Political & religious thoughts on abortion: It is difficult to isolate politics from religion. The two are so closely intertwined that very often what is a political statement, might sound like a deeply religious one. There is a very fine line that can be drawn between religion and politics and it is a commonly accepted fact that this has been the position from time immemorial. Though abortions have been legalized in most states in the US, there are constant dissensions on the issue that flare up into major verbal as well as physical clashes. It would be relevant to mention here that political parties have always had to face the questions raised by pro-life as well as pro-choice voters as part of their political campaigns. As an election issue, it is just as important as the amount of federal money that is being spent on the defence services and probably more so when an election is imminent, as the situation right now is. When the subject of discussion and debate is a contentious one like abortion, political parties try to project a very unified view; however, their credibility on their stance is always at stake. It is commonly believed that Republicans are pro-life and would like to see Roe v. Wade relegated to the back pages of legal history. John McCain, for instance, has been a consistent pro-lifer since 1984. (Head, 2008). The Democrat viewpoint is generally one of pro-choice. However, a recent report on the views of Barack Obama on the issue recounts his commitment to take constructive measures to reduce the number of abortions in the country (Chicago Tribune, 2008). This seemingly near-pro-life attitude has led to the formation of a Catholic group that believes that voting for a supposedly pro-choice

Social Media Texting: Bad Grammar

Social Media Texting: Bad Grammar LOL and OMG have been the acronyms of the decade and have become a trend in the way people communicate. Social media has expanded so much that people are becoming dependent on the Internet and are creating their own language. Social media is making the younger generation develop bad grammar. This issue is a problem because it is making society incapable of structuring coherent sentences making this generation dumb. The time being spend on social media outlets cuts down on the time focusing on their education and grammar. Although some argue that social media helps people communicate better in their daily lives, social media and texting are placing a burden on education. Social media has triggered one from learning academic and professional communication skill, promoting bad grammar, and the lack of creativity. Social media is promoting bad grammar because people accustomed to writing colloquially when they write structured essays. Bad grammar has gotten so severe that people have made several appearances on news channels about social media and bad grammar. A video that was posted on Channel 19 KYTX which is a local news station in Tyler, Texas. It talks about how students are trying to use bad grammar in their essays, which they also use on Facebook and Twitter. Living in a social media world in which people try to communicate as fast as possible people keep conversations short. Kaylee McPherson says to KYTX, I dont even put periods, question marks or anything. I just type it and go (Austin).With the generation being based on technology people ending up not just texting in acronyms but also speaking them was bound to happen. McPherson states that, Now, they actually start talking it. I hear people talking and Im like you kind of sound dumb. Not only are teenagers using shorthand on social media but also in the classroom. Melanie McNeils a high school English teacher says that when she grades papers she sees t he lingo in their essays. Melanie McPherson says, Ok, this is one I see a lot. B4=before, OMG=oh my god, u=you, y=why (Austin). Instead of McNeil giving her students no credit for that type of language used in their essays, she talks to her students about the difference between casual language and academic language and when it is the appropriate time to use the two (Austin). This web lingo has increased so much that even the Oxford English dictionary has added the words: Lol, Omg,Tweet, Retweet and even Sext. There is justification that the world is changing due to social media. Ontario Waterloo University in Canada requires students to pass an English language skills test in order to be accepted into the university. According to the statistics 1/3 are failing and students are blaming social media. Ontario Waterloo is a great educational example of how we can resolve the grammar problem. People should be happy that Universities are taking such an effect on this problem then maybe at least the younger generation will try harder to fix their grammar and spend less on social media cites. Bad grammar and social media go hand in hand people. People are so excited to send an instant message that they use shorthand of words and do not use full sentences. This is a server problem that needs to be addressed and people need to communicate effectively to change the bad grammar that our generation has developed. Being depended on social media affects people because they stop communicating and it will eventually affect them in long run. Switching from academic to colloquial language is difficult for most getting accustomed to changing the language and it is declining grammar skill. In the article, No LOL matter: Tween texting may lead to poor grammar skills by Pen State Official University News Source this article discuss how tweens who are in the age range between nine and fourteen are texting in acronyms and according to researches are decline language and grammar skills(par. 1). Text messaging may be an easy and fast way for one to communicate but according to Drew Cingel who is a Distinguished Professor of Communications and co-director of the Pen States Media Effects Research Laboratory states that, The use of these shortcuts may hinder a tweens ability to switch between techspeack and normal rules of grammar(par. 5). Teachspeak is when someone uses shortcuts while texting, on a social media site or chatting, such as U for You. Cingel gave middle school children in Pennsylvania a grammar assessment test at a 9 th grade level to see if everyone up to par she eventually stated after receiving the scores, Overall, there is evidence of a decline in grammar scores based on the number of adaptions in sent text messages(par. 8). The most people text the more they will adapt to that type of style and will not be about to distinguish whether they are writing proper or not. In High School I always experienced teachspeak, when I was in my English class the teacher would tell us to peer review each others essay. I would always notice that in every paper I would peer review I would at least see one or more tachspeak errors where someone would u instead of you .That is why researches have stated that it is affecting childrens grammar. Some may say that social media has been a way to connect with our lost love ones and some researchers have stated that social media is the downfall of the generation. The Internet is growing rapidly and it and has created many alternative ways from one to get information such as Dictionary.com, where one can look up a definition instead of grabbing a dictionary and instead of reading a book there are books online that you can use on your Ipad or kindle. Social media and texting has have a downfall on our grammar and it is getting harder to multitask. In the article, Yes, People Still Read, But Now Its Social by Steven Johnson it explains how people are reading books on a Kindle but Mr.Carrs who is the author of, The Shallows states, These distraction comes with heavy cost scientific studies show how multitasking harms our concentration(427). Due to social media such as Twitter, Facebook,and YouTube etc. being used all at once people are less likely to be able to focus. People who mul titask more are going to be faced with certain challenges in school when they are not able to concentrate in their studies. According to a study they found out that, Heavy multitasking performed about about 10 to 20 percent worse on most test than light multitasking (427). So it is true that Social media is making us dumb, people may read books on Kindle and might be happy that they are reading books but Mr.Carrs concern is that people are not thinking with a high-level mind set and people are reading pages on a screen. I feel like if society is going to depend on the internet eventually people will stop talking in complete and full sentences and will start using acronyms and that will affect peoples grammar when they are trying to write in an educational matter. The statistics for text messages have increased over the years. According to the Chicago Tribute that stated that Pew Research claims, 72% of adults and 87% of teens send and receive text messages(par.2). It is not only the teenagers that are constantly texting but also adults who are texting away. An executive editor of the American Heritage Dictionary named Steve Kleindetr says that when you text you may want to pay close attention to your attention. Kleinder gives us an example, If youre texting a friend who has difficulty with loose grammatical standards, be sure to spell out u (par. 2). This is a great point that Kleinder stated one must always think about the audience if it is either sending a text message or an email. No one will send an email to their boss saying Sup, cant make 2 wrk L8ts and especially if you had a friend who struggles with grammar you would write out everything clearly. Grammar is a huge part of our society and, People will always judge you, so write with that in mind, Kleinedler says. I personally have never wrote in short hand reason being that I struggle in English and I am not a very good speller, and if I were to write colloquialisms I would not help myself. That is why I made a pact with myself to always write in complete sentences if I am either texting on Facebook or Twitter no matter what. This has actually been beneficial to me because I have never written colloquiums in my essays I might still be a bad speller but at least I do not do it on purpose. Our generation will never be the same the Internet will always have some sort of power over us and with the development of technology increasing there is nothing we can do but educate ourselves. Just because everyone is texting and on Facebook sounding illiterate does not mean we have to do it too. We must take a stand and show society that the generation might be powered with technology but we are using it for our education and other beneficial things. Grammar will always be a problem and it can be fixed but with so many Social media outlets using Weblingo there is no way everyone will stop trying to be cool and rebel against it. Some people will not want to do it but they are dumb-ing themselves down. People need to learn how to talk proper and how to communicate instead of through Facebook and over a text. If this issue is not fixed our generation will be destroyed and there will be no way to fix it. Septic Shock Case Study: Causes and Effects Septic Shock Case Study: Causes and Effects Introduction Septic Shock is a serious circulatory disorder often characterised by a whole- body inflammatory state and the systemic response to infection (Titheradge, 1998), with the most common cause being the contamination of blood with bacteria. Septic shock is defined as sepsis with hypotension which develops in almost half of all septic patients as a complication with a mortality rate of 40-60% (Titheradge, 1998). Septic shock often results in a progressive failure of the circulation to provide blood and oxygen to vital organs of the body resulting in impaired tissue perfusion and oxygen extraction (Thiemermann, 1997). The key symptoms include a severe fall in blood pressure (hypotension) with hypo-reactivity to vasoconstrictor agents (vasoplegia) which may lead to the dysfunction or failure of major organs including lungs, liver, kidneys and brain (multiple organ dysfunction, MODS) and ultimately death (Goligorski et al., 1997). Presently it is widely assumed that septic shock rarely shows similar symptoms in affected individuals and therefore it is difficult to detect and then consequently treat it (Groeneveld and Thijs, 1986). It is, however, also agreed that most of the therapeutic interventions invariably focus on the primary aim of fighting the refractory hypotension by the use of aggressive fluid infusions, glucocorticoids, large doses of vasoconstrictors (Baumgartner and Calandra, 1999) and occasionally renal replacement therapy (Wheeler Bernard, 1999). Yet these interventions do not offer consistent success (Parratt, 1997). In recent times, our understanding of the pathophysiology of septic shock has developed significantly through experimental and clinical trials, though the discovery of a suitable treatment with therapeutic efficacy is proving elusive (Baumgartner and Calandra, 1999). This is probably because of the heterogeneity of the clinical situations and the differences in host response to i dentical pathogens. Moreover evidence suggests that different pathogens which cause septic shock respond differently to the conventional treatments. Still, no effort has been made to treat patients according to the nature of the infecting organism (Gao, Anonymous, 1992). During the early 1990s nitric oxide (NO) emerged as a potentially substantial step towards the treatment of septic shock. This finding directed scientists to carry out numerous clinical trials and animal experiments with the objective of finding out more about the interrelation of NO and Sepsis (Cobb, 1999; Kilbourn, 1999). Later, the discovery of nitric oxide synthase (NOS) made this enzyme the primary target of therapeutic agents (Rosselet et al., 1998). However, recently a substantial amount of literature has been published with evidence contradicting the discoveries of earlier studies. Today more than a decade has elapsed without any resolution to the matter and even in this 21st century Septic Shock is invading the developing countries rapidly (Cobb, 1999; Kilbourn, 1999). This problem of a lack of significant advances in this field can be highlighted by the fact that 17 years have passed since the final publication of the Consensus Conference on sepsis and sepsis related syndromes (Rangel-Frausto, 2005). This paper conclusively defined sepsis and its symptoms with the hope of finding a suitable treatment in order to eradicate the disease (Rangel-Frausto, 2005). Today, however, the situation has not changed significantly with up to 750,000 new sepsis cases every year and 215,000 annual deaths in the United States (Trzeciak et al., 2008, Mitchell M. Levy, 2007). Additionally, in the population that survives such attacks, there is considerable morbidity with many scoring low in health related quality of life assessments (Kaarlola et al., 2003, Perl et al., 1995). Hence the 5 million lives campaign instigated by the US Institute of Healthcare Improvements, aims to minimize the prevalence of nosocomial sepsis (sepsis originating in a hospital) (Gao et al., 2008). This campaign aimed specifically at increasing safety and transforming the quality of hospital care (McCannon et al., 2007). Moreover, the Surviving Sepsis Campaign aims to improve the quality of life of septic patients using the best evidence available currently (Dellinger et al., 2004). Though the world mortality rates have declined in recent times, sepsis is gradually becoming more prevalent in the elderly in the developing countries (Gao et al., 2008).This is mainly due to the extended longevity of patients with chronic illnesses, the increased occurrence of immunosuppression, and the more frequent use of invasive procedures (Bone, 1991; Parrillo, 1993). Sepsis, severe sepsis, septic shock and multiple organ failure still dominate the mass cases of non coronary intensive care units (ICUs). This essay will attempt to explore the fundamental mechanisms leading to tissue and organ damage in septic shock through the investigation of a case study. Following this, the discovery and general biology of nitric oxide (NO) shall be discussed, and the experimental evidence implicating NO as an effector in sepsis, will be examined in detail. The results obtained from various pharmacologic interventions directed at NO in animal studies will also be considered. This report will also give an account of conventional and innovative treatments for the management of septic shock. Finally, data from the few available relevant clinical trials will be reviewed and possible future avenues of interest will be discussed. Systemic Inflammatory response syndrome and Septic Shock (Clinical Manifestation) Sepsis, severe sepsis and septic shock were inaccurately defined until a recently reviewed consensus conference in 1992 (Bone et al., 1992, Dellinger et al., 2004). In this meeting the term systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS) was invented insinuating a clinical response arising from a nonspecific tissue damaging event (insult) (Rangel-Frausto, 2005). Sepsis as mentioned earlier is the result of substantial release of inflammatory mediators in response to an infection. However, often the same mediators are released in the absence of a documented infected in several medical conditions such as cardiopulmonary bypass (Wan S. et al., 1997), pancreatitis and trauma (Shanley TP. et al., 2006). Due to this, the early definitions of sepsis or septic shock were found to be misleading hence a North American consensus conference proposed a new terminology. In this conference sepsis was defined as a condition in which critically ill patients meet criteria for SIRS, in the context of infection. SIRS was defined as two or more of the following: 1) heart rate >90/min; 2) temperature >38Â °C or 12,000 or 20/min or a PCO2 3.5 L min-1 M-23; 2) hyperglycaemia (plasma glucose >120 mg/dL) in the absence of diabetes; 3) significant oedema or positive fluid balance (20 mL/kg over 20 h); 4) inflammatory variables: plasma C-reactive protein >2 SD above t he normal value or plasma procalcitonin >2 SD above the normal value and 5) mixed venous oxygen saturation (SVO2) >70% . (Dellinger RP et al., 2004). SIRS is generally not considered as a disease and its recognition does not provide any clinical conclusion. However, since it has proven to be a very useful for the identification of sepsis and its sequelae namely severe sepsis and septic shock it is regarded as a very important tool (Shanley TP. et al., 2006). Case Study: A 3-year-old boy was admitted to the intensive care unit because of fever, hypotension, and lethargy. A purpuric rash was noted on his arms and legs. Arterial blood gas analysis demonstrated hypoxemia and metabolic acidosis. The arterial lactate level was 10 mmol/L. He was intubated, resuscitated with crystalloid solution, started on broad-spectrum antibiotic therapy, and given dopamine to maintain a MAP above 55 mmHg. His chest radiograph revealed bilateral interstitial-alveolar infiltrates with a left sided predominance. Gram stain of the cerebrospinal fluid showed gram-negative cocci. The dopamine infusion was increased to 18Â µg kg-1min-1 for persistent hypotension and oliguria. Pulmonary and radial arterial catheter data yielded the following blood pressure, 85/30 mm Hg; MAP, 48 mm Hg; heart rate, 140 beats per minute; CVP, 10 mm Hg; pulmonary artery pressure, 22/14 mm Hg; PCWP, 12 mm Hg; cardiac index, 2.5L min-1m-2; and SVRI, 1226 dyne-sec-cm-5m-2. The boy was treated with ad ditional saline and an epinephrine infusion, which increased the MAP, cardiac index, and urine output. Arterial lactate levels decreased over the next 12 hours. Subsequent cultures of blood and cerebrospinal fluid grew Neisseria meningitidis. In this case the patient with acute organ failure and hypotension was diagnosed with septic shock. The young boy with meningococcal septic shock had a borderline-low cardiac index. Due to this a decrease in the cardiac index in this patient by the administration of an NOS inhibitor might not be desirable. This is suggestive of the fact that NO or its synthesising means cannot always be targeted in order to battle septic shock. I will attempt to go into further details with regards to this statement as we go along the essay. Nitric Oxide discovery: Joseph Priestly first identified gaseous NO in 1772. NO also named Nitrogen Monoxide is a very simple and tiny molecule consisting of one nitrogen and one oxygen molecule. Unknown of its fundamental physiological roles in the mammals, until the 1980s NO was widely considered as a mere toxic atmospheric pollutant (Konstantin J. Ovodov et al., 2000). In the 1980s researchers were examining how blood vessels expand (dilate) hence regulate the mean arterial blood pressure. Dilation of blood vessels, also termed vasodilation is a very important physiological response which partly regulates the blood pressure. By increasing the diameter of blood vessels, vasodilation causes the blood to travel more freely due to lower resistance (RF Furchgott, 1980). Since the blood vessel lumen widens during vasodilation, the blood imposes less outward pressure on the vessel wall hence reducing the blood pressure. In opposition, vasoconstriction reduces the diameter of the lumen increasing the BP. These physiological responses occur all the time in the human body regulating the BP and therefore are one of the most fundamental mechanisms of the human body. Dr Robert Furchgott and his group, later in 1980s investigated the role of acetylcholine in the smooth muscle relaxation and found that relaxation only occurred if a special class of cells called endothelial cells were present (RF Furchgott, 1980). These cells line the interior surface of blood vessels, forming an interface between circulating blood in the lumen and the rest of the vessel wall. Behind the endothelial cells are the smooth muscle cells which either relax or contract thus regulating the vascular tone (RF Furchgott, 1991). The same research group also discovered that smooth muscle were only able to vasodilate the blood vessels in the presence of endothelial cells. This indicated that there was some kind of factor that was being released by the endothelial cells which was involved in the dilation of the blood vessel. This factor was named Endothelium Derived Relaxing Factor (EDRF) and subsequently specified as NO (S Moncada et al., 1997). In 1977, Ferid Murad independantly investigated the mechanism of action of nitroglycerin and found that it worked by inducing the release of NO which in turn was able to cause relaxation of smooth muscle cells (F Murad et al., 1977). Louis Ignarro in 1986 finally resolved the whole perplex of EDRF and NO by declaring that EDRF was in fact NO. It was stated that both molecules showed identical properties when he compared gas Nitric Oxide and EDRF (Ignarro, L. J. Et al. 1987). In 1998, Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine was awarded to Drs. Robert Furchgott, Louis Ignarro, and Ferid Murad for their discoveries that vascular endothelial cells make nitric oxide (NO) and that such endothelium-derived NO stimulates cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) synthesis in the underlying vascular smooth muscle, causing relaxation (Kilbourn, 1999). Since the discovery of NO, vast number of its physiological roles in normal conditions have been reported including in the immune system, nervous system, reproductive system and other cellular functions. It has also been found to play important roles in variety of species ranging from mammals, to insects and plants. Role of Nitric Oxide in Biology Since it was first discovered to play a role in the dilation of blood vessels many new roles for Nitric Oxide (NO) have been discovered. In human body, NO is metabolised by its diffusion into red blood cells where it oxidizes the ferrous iron of oxyhemoglobin yielding methemoglobin and nitrate ions (NO3-) (J.M. Hevel et al., 1994 and Konstantin J. Ovodov and Ronald G. Pearl, 2000). This meachanism limits local NO build up and is particularly important in keeping NO concentration in naomolar range, at least in nonhydrophobic compartments (i.e. outside cell membranes) (Beckman Koppenol, 1996). Nitric oxide has been found to be produced by effectively every cell type in vivo and plays an important role in both controlling the normal function of cells as well as in regulating larger scale processes such as the reproductive, immune and nervous systems. A few of these biological functions for NO are described in more detail below. The Immune System Nitric oxide plays many important roles in the immune system although it is expressed in many cell types following endotoxin or pro-inflammatory cytokine treatment (C. Nathan et al., 1991 and R.G. Knowles et al., 1994). NO, in immune system, is produced in high amounts from specific cells called macrophages. Proceedingly to an infection, chemicals known as cytokines are release in vivo which activate the cells of the immune system such as macrophages, and help guide them to the site of infection (S. Moncada et al., 1991 and C. Nathan et al., 1991). NO produced by the macrophages is toxic to the bacteria and play an important role in their destruction (Fig 1). The production of nitric oxide in this way also helps protect against other types of infection including parasites and viruses (S. Moncada et al., 1991). However, too much nitric oxide production can not only lead to septic shock but has also been implicated in conditions where the immune system is too active autoimmune diseases like arthritis (Jang D and Murrell G A, 1998). The Nervous System Nitric oxide has been shown to be involved in both the peripheral and central nervous system. The three nitric oxide producing isotypes of enzyme (iNOS, eNOS, nNOS) (see section) in humans, one isotype (neuronal NOS (nNOS)) is found almost exclusively in the nervous system (Forstermann et al., 1995). nNOS is thought to be involved in promoting the transfer of interneuronal nerve signals. This is thought to take place by the stimulation of exocytosis (release) of endogenous chemicals called neurotransmitters of one neurone (Moncada et al., 1991; Forstermann and Kleinert, 1995). These NT then diffuse across the synaptic cleft (gap between neuronal terminals) and stimulate the neighbouring nerve cell terminal to transmit the signal (Otto Loewi, 1961). NO has shown to play a substantial role in diseases of the nervous system like Alzheimers and Parkinsons. In both diseases, the inhibition of NO has shown to slow down the progression of the disease in mice (Weill Cornell Team, 2005 and Jo hns Hopkins et al., 2004). Reproductive Biology Nitric oxide is one of the most important molecule in the course of reproduction and is involved in many aspects of it. As well as dilating the blood vessels and thereby helping to regulate maternal blood pressure, NO is also involved in implanting the early embryo in the uterus (Rogers, 1995). During pregnancy, nitric oxide is also suggested promote angiogenesis (a process in which new blood vessels are formed) (RayChaudhury et al., 1996). It is also known to play a role in the survival of trophoblasts (form placenta) (Enders et al., 1978). Furthermore deficiency of NO has been found in patients with preeclampsia (a medical condition in pregnancy) suggesting its partial role in growth of embryo (Yallampalli et al., 1994; Liao et al., 1996). In addition, drugs (Viagra) used to treat erectile dysfunction also affect nitric oxide signalling. Cellular function A notable number of cellular activities can be controlled by nitric oxide including cell division, cell movement and cell survival. The majority of cells in human body have the ability to undergo programmed cellular death. This is a self-destructive mechanism usually called apoptosis which often occurs when a cell is damaged and beyond repair, infected with a virus, or undergoing stressful conditions such as starvation (Kerr et al., 1972). Cells in these conditions go through apoptosis so that they dont hinder the proper functioning of the rest of the tissue. During apoptosis, the structures of the cell break down in an organised manner, forming a packaged cell that is smaller in size so that it can be easily removed by the cells of the immune system (Kerr et al., 1972). Nitric oxide was first shown to inhibit apoptosis hence promoting cell survival in human B lymphocytes (Mannick, J. B. Et al., 1994). Subsequently similar finding were reported in an ample number of other cells. However, high doses of nitric oxide also have deleterious effects. They can be toxic to many cell types and can lead to septic shock and multiple organ dysfunction syndrome (MODS) in which case NO causes cell death instead of promoting cell survival (Beal Cerra, 1994). Nitric Oxide and Inflammation (Pathophysiology of septic shock) This section will deal with mechanism by which wall fragments of Gram-negative or Gram-positive bacteria and other inflammatory agents induce nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) in cells and tissues. Exogenous toxins which enter the circulation stimulate the synthesis and release of a number of endogenous cytokines. During a gram-negative infection which can lead to septic shock, lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and endotoxins present on bacterial wall and many other inflammatory agents bind to a co-receptor (CD14) on the surface of specific immune cells like macrophages, resulting in their activation (J.C. Lee et al., 1996). LPS also bind to LPS-binding proteins which are produced by the liver. These proteins facilitate LPS binding to the CD14 co-receptor of the macrophages. The CD14 co-receptor is activated through the binding of LPS to a toll-like molecule (TLR4), (Re F, Strominger J. Et al., 2001) which is responsible for initiating the transmembrane signaling. TLR2 molecules act in the same way as TLR4, (Leppper PM et al., 2002) though; these are activated by gram-positive bacteria, mycobacteria and yeast. Gram-positive bacteria such as Staphylococcus aureus have further additional wall fragments such as peptidoglycan (PepG) and lipoteichoic acid (LTA). Both PepG and LTA have been shown to synergise to produce the characteristic features of septic shock, MODS and ultimately death in rodent models (S.J. De Kimpe et al., 1995 and G.M. Millar et al., 1997). These effects were not observed with either LTA or peptidoglycan alone, although high doses of LTA can cause circulatory failure but not MODS (S.J. De Kimpe et al., 1995). Gram-positive bacteria may also release other enterotoxins and exotoxins, for example toxic shock syndrome toxin 1, which are involved in the pathogenesis of sepsis (reviewed in (R.C. Bone et al., 1994)). The additional fragments released by Gram-positive bacteria bind to unknown receptors however, like LPS binding, cause the release of proinflammatory cytokines TNF-a, IL-1ß, and IFN-? (Thiemermann, 1997, Titheradge, 1999). These cytokines as well as IL-6 are often produced in response to immune stimulation of macrophages and monocytes hence also in septic shock patients. IL-1 and TNF each occur in two forms, a and ß. TNF- a and both forms of IL-1 are made by activated monocytes and macrophages, whereas TNF- ß is made by activated T lymphocytes (Review by J. Saklatvala et al., 1996). There are two receptors for both IL-1 and TNF and the two forms of each cytokine interact with the same receptors. IL-1 a and ß interact with the type 1 IL-1 receptor for signal transduction, whereas type II does not appear to transmit any signal and functions as an inhibitor of IL-1 action (J. Saklatvala et al., 1996). The two types of TNF receptor, p55 (type I) and p75 (type II) have different end effects; p75 mediates the proliferative actions of TNF- a while p55 receptor signals the inflammatory response and apoptosis (J. Saklatvala et al., 1996). Complex interactions between these different mediators produce intense pathophysiological modification, which eventually lead to diffuse tissue injury and ultimately sequential system failure (multiple organ dysfunc tion syndrome), which accounts for the majority of deaths among patients with sepsis, severe sepsis and septic shock (Beal Cerra, 1994). IL-1ß and TNF-a have a very short half life compared to IL-6 and therefore IL-6 is a very good indicator of cytokinemia. The initial studies of septic shock, showed a very strong positive correlation between IL-6 levels and fatal outcome (Casey L. Et al., 1993). NO is equally a very short lived molecule with an estimated in vivo half life of only 0.1 seconds hence again it is hard to measure its levels in order to detect the severity of cytokinemia hence the severity of sepsis or septic shock. There are several molecules that contribute to the pro and anti-inflammatory responses in septic shock (Table 4); however I shall only focus on a few due to the limited word allowance. In response to inflammatory agents in septic shock, the released cytokines (TNF-a, IL-1ß, and IFN- ?), bind to their specific receptors activating a protein kinase called tyrosine kinase leading to both the activation of the nuclear factor-kB (NF-?B) (a transcription factor) and the phosphorylation of intracellular protein (Gao et al., 2008). A precise mechanism by which these cytokines act was proposed by J. Saklatvala et al. in 1996 however this has yet to be confirmed. Nitric oxide producing cells contain I-?B which is an inhibitor of NF-?B. For the activation of NF-?B, proteolytic cleavage of I-?B from NF-?B is required which forms NF-?B. This biological change allows the activated NF-?B to translocate to the nucleus, where it binds to the promoter region of the iNOS gene inducing transcription. It has also been reported to induce other inflammatory agents, such as cytokines and leukocyte-endothelial adhesion molecules (Janssen-Heininger et al., 2000). Tyrosine kinase present inside the cell acts as a messenger molecule involved in the proteolytic cleavage of I-?B/NF-?B and hence in the activation of NF-?B and iNOS expression (Hecker M, et al., 1996). In septic shock, the translated products of iNOS mRNA subsequently assemble forming the iNOS protein which in turn causes local NO proliferation (Thiemermann, 1997). Fig 2 shows the signal transduction pathway of iNOS expression in response to inflammatory agents. The physiological role of iNOS is to enhance the formation of NO (due to iNOS activity), which in turn may contribute to either the pathophysiology of septic shock (clinbical symptoms) or the host defence (Reviewed in Gao et al., 2008). Fig 3 shows a simplified schematic of the Anti Inflammatory cascade in the context of septic shock. Excess NO produced by iNOS has been reported to both induce and inhibit NF-?B (Kalra et al., 2000; Umansky et al., 1998). In year 2000, it was proposed that low levels of NO may induce further NO production while high concentrations do the opposite exhibiting a feedback mechanisms that would oppose the over expression of genes regulated by NF-?B (Janssen-Heininger et al., 2000). In addition NO at high concentrations competes with O2 at the active site of NOS, thus providing a feedback mechanism of its own synthesis (Griscavage et al., 1995; Rengasamy Johns, 1993). Biological Synthesis of Nitric Oxide (Nitric Oxide Synthases) NOS structure and substrates for NO production: In mammals, NO is exclusively formed from the enzymatic oxidation of one terminal guanidino nitrogen of the amino acid L-arginine. When expressed in moles, this reaction utilizes 1 mol each of arginine and O2, and 1.5 mol of NADPH, yielding 1 mol of NO, 1 mol of L-citrulline and 1.5 mol of NADP (R.G. Knowles et al., 1994). The reaction sequence involves the generation of an Ng-hydroxy-L-arginine intermediate, followed by the oxidation of Ng-hydroxy-L-arginine in presence of molecular oxygen to form L-citrulline and NO (Dennis J. Stuehr et al., 1991 and R.G. Knowles et al., 1994). The enzymes that accelerate the reaction above are a family of relatively large heme proteins known as NO synthase (NOS) which resemble cytochrome P450 structurally (M. M. Chan et al., 2001 and Francois Feihl, 2001) (The general mechanism of NO production from NOS is illustrated in Fig 4). All members of this family share a similar homodimeric structure, where each monomer consists of a an oxygenase domain and a reductase domain, separated by a short amino acids (30aa) sequence for the attachment of the Ca2+-binding protein calmodulin. In addition to calmodulin attachment, enzymatic activity requires the presence of four cofactors: FAD, flavin mononucleotide (FMN), tetrahydrobiopterin (BH4), and heme (Francois Feihl, 2001). Fig 5 shows the general structure of the NOS enzymes. Nitric Oxide Synthase isoforms and their locus in the Human Body: There are three known isoforms of NOS, each the product of a different gene: neuronal NOS (nNOS or NOS-1), inducible NOS (iNOS or NOS-2), and endothelial NOS (eNOS or NOS-3). nNOS and eNOS were first described in rat cerebellum and bovine aortic endothelial cells, respectively, but their tissue distribution is far wider than suggested by their names. eNOS and nNOS are involved in regulating vascular tone (R.G. Knowles et al.,1992 and S. Moncada et al., 1991) and neurotransmission respectively, whereas iNOS is involved in the immune defence although it is expressed in many cell types following endotoxin or pro inflammatory cytokine treatment (R.G. Knowles et al., 1994). nNOS is typically expressed in skeletal muscle and myenteric plexuses. eNOS is ubiquitous in vascular endothelium, but may also be found in the kidney tubular epithelial cells, placenta (Forstermann et al., 1995), and neurons (Nathan Xie, 1994). In these tissues, the expression of nNOS and eNOS is constitutive, although it may be regulated (Michel Feron, 1997). For instance, the levels of transcript for eNOS in vascular endothelial cells is increased by shear stress (Topper et al., 1996; Uematsu et al., 1995) and exercise (Wang et al., 1997), reduced by inflammatory stimuli such as TNF-a (Nathan Xie, 1994) and variably affected by hypoxia (Le Cras et al., 1998; Toporsian et al., 2000). In the physiological state, the iNOS isoform is only present at a few locations, notably the respiratory epithelium, the gravid uterus (Nathan Xie, 1994), and perhaps the ileal mucosa (Hoffman et al., 1997). iNOS expression has been demonstrated in numerous cell types including macrophages, neutrop hils, vascular endothelial (Hoffmann et al., 1999), smooth muscle cells, endocardium, myocardium, fibroblast, mesangial cells, renal tubular epithelium (Kunz et al., 1994), neurons, hepatocytes, pancreatic islet cells and astrocytes (Nathan Xie, 1994). iNOS can be induced by a number factors including UV light; cyclic AMP-elevating agents; trauma; ozone and bacterial products described earlier (see section). On the other hand, many endogenous agents may oppose cytokine induction of iNOS. These include anti-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-10, chemokines such as monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 and growth factors such as tumor growth factor-ß (Forstermann et al., 1995). In all NOS isoforms, calmodulin binding is an absolutely vital for enzymatic activity. In the cases of eNOS and nNOS, this binding necessitates relatively high concentrations of Ca2+ (see Fig 7), in the range of 0.1-1 mM (Forstermann et al., 1995). In contrast, iNOS is able to bind calmodulin virtually independ ant of Ca2+ (Table 2). Therefore, once iNOS is expressed, NO synthesis may only be limited by the availability of substrates and cofactors (J. Stuehr, 1990). As NO produced from iNOS predominantly depends only on iNOS expression, it lasts much longer than NO formed from the other isoforms of NOS. In addition iNOS produces much higher concentrations of Ca2+ compared to the consecutive forms of NOS (Cobb et al., 1996). The production of NO by eNOS and nNOS, compared to iNOS, can be controlled relatively easily by decreasing or increasing intracellular Ca2+, whereas iNOS can only be controlled through transcription (Cobb et al., 1996). In most cell types iNOS protein levels are either very low or undetectable. However, stimulation of these cells by cytokines or growth factors, can lead to increased transcription of the iNOS gene, with subsequent production of NO. On the other hand, for the prevention of iNOS expression through endotoxins, TGF-ß (Szabo, 1995) and anti inflammatory gl ucocorticoids can be administered which lower the magnitude of vascular hyporeactivity. Glucocorticoids such as Dexamethasone inhibit iNOS activity by blocking arginine transport and inhibiting tetrahydrobiopterin biosynthesis (A.J.B. Brady et al., 1992 and Thiemermann C et al., 1993). Regulation of NO production In the normal as well as in extreme physiological states (e.g. during infection), nitric oxide is considered as one of the most important signalling molecules in vivo. It is however also highly reactive and highly diffusible due to it being a free radical (one unpaired electron) (see fig 8). It is therefore important that there is strict control and regulation of nitric oxide production. The synthesis of NO within cells can be regulated in several ways such as the cellular distribution of NOS, changes in NOS gene expression, enzymatic activation by phosphorylation and the presence of cellular inhibitors NOS activity. Intracellular distribution of NOS Nitric oxide is principally regulated through strict control over the location of NO production. The NOS isoforms can be targeted to different regions of the cell, where NO will be produced in close contact with its target proteins. The image below shows the distribution of iNOS (shown in green in image 1) and eNOS (shown in red) in a trophoblast cell. The nucleus is shown in blue. Co-localisation between iNOS and eNOS will show up as a yellow colour (Phil Dash, University of Reading). The image shows that eNOS and iNOS are fairly variably distributed inside the cell, with hardly any yellow colour suggesting very little overlap in their cellular distribution (Phil Dash, University of Reading).Although both iNOS and eNOS produce NO it is likely that their different cellular distribution will lead to NO interacting with different targets and therefore having different effects (Phil Dash, University of Reading). It is very likely that the distribution of NOS isoforms is an important mechanism for regulating when and where NO is produced. Therefore the current research on NOS mainly focuses on how endogenous signals trigger NOS transport and redistribution (Rahul S. Koti et al., 2005). Activation of NOS activity NOS enzyme synthesis is principally regulated by changes in intracellular calcium levels. The constitutive isoforms of NOS, (eNOS and nNOS) have shown to proliferate following increases in Ca2+, and therefore calmodulin levels, in the cell (Rameau et al., 2003). Additionally both nNOS and